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In social work, it is not possible to separate theory from practice or concept from action. In fact, practice is the process of using knowledge and applying theory in order to bring about specific types of change. A practice uninformed by theory tends to become repetitive and sterile, whereas theory uninformed by the realities of practice tends to be merely interesting and usually irrelevant.

The many theories, models, and perspectives discussed in the social work literature can all be considered conceptual frameworks. A conceptual framework is composed of a coherent set of concepts, beliefs, values, propositions, assumptions, hypotheses, and principles. Such a framework can be thought of as an outline of ideas that help one to understand people, how people function, and how people change.

These frameworks are important to social workers because they have utility. For example: They provide a structure for analyzing complex and often highly emotional human problems and situations. They organize information, beliefs, and assumptions into a meaningful whole. They provide a rationale for action and decision making. They promote a systematic, orderly, and predictable approach to work with people. They facilitate communication among professionals.

In their practice, social workers use a variety of theories, models, and perspectives. Although these terms have somewhat different meanings, they are often lumped together and simply termed theory. However, it is helpful to make some distinctions as to types and usage of terms used to describe these conceptual frameworks (see Figure 1). Howe (1987, 166) explains that, broadly speaking, there are theories of social work and theories for social work. The theories of social work focus on the profession and explain its purpose, domain, and character within our society. They explain what the profession is all about, who it is for, and why it functions as it does. By contrast, the theories for social work focus on clients and helping activities. They explain human behavior, the social environment, how change occurs, and how change can be facilitated by the social worker in order to benefit clients.

In their work with clients, social workers make use of orienting theories and practice frameworks. Mailick (1990) explains that orienting theories describe and explain behavior and how and why certain problems develop. They provide important background knowledge and are usually borrowed from other disciplines such as biology, psychology, sociology, economics, cultural anthropology, and the like. Examples include the various theories related to human development, personality, family systems, socialization, organizational functioning, and political power, as well as theories related to specific types of problems such as poverty, family violence, mental illness, teen pregnancy, crime, and racial discrimination. Orienting theories, by themselves, provide little guidance on how to bring about change. For such guidance one must look to a second category called practice frameworks. There are three types: practice perspectives, practice theories, and practice models.

The most overarching type of practice framework is a practice perspective. A practice perspective can be described as a conceptual lens through which one views human behavior and social structures and which, simultaneously, guide the selection of intervention strategies. Like a camera lens, a practice perspective serves to focus on or magnify a particular feature while placing other features in the background. Two perspectives, the general systems perspective and the ecosystems perspective, are commonly used in social work for assessing the relationships between people and their environment. Others, such as the generalist, feminist, and ethnic-sensitive practice perspectives, focus more on the philosophy and processes to be followed in working toward change.

A second type of framework is a practice theory, which offers both an explanation of certain behaviors or situations and broad guidelines about how those behaviors or situations can be changed. A practice theory serves as a road map for an intervention that will bring about a certain type of change. Most practice theories are rooted in one or more orienting theories. An example is the psychosocial approach that is based primarily on psychodynamic theory and ego psychology. Another is behavioral therapy that is based on theories of learning.

A distinction is made here between a practice theory and a practice model, the third type of practice framework. A practice model is a set of concepts and principles used to guide certain interventions. However, in contrast to a practice theory, a model is not tied to a particular explanation of behavior. For example, task-centered approach is viewed as a practice model rather than a practice theory because the action steps of this intervention are not tied to any one explanation of problem situations. For the same reason, the crisis intervention is termed a model rather than a practice theory. Most often a model develops out of actual experience or experimentation rather than evolve from a particular theory of behavior.

The term model is also used when referring to a conceptual framework that can be borrowed from one field and applied to another. For example, when someone refers to an approach to change based on the medical model, he or she is referring to activity that mirrors the approach used in scientific medicine - one that places emphasis on the practitioner as an expert and an authority figure, careful gathering and categorization of data (study), the use of a classification system to properly label the problem (diagnosis), and an intervention (treatment) dictated by the diagnosis. Similarly, social workers may refer to the legal model as a way of describing an approach to social action and client advocacy - one that emphasizes competition among adversaries and a conflict strategy.

It is rare for a social worker to use a single orienting theory or a single practice framework in practice. Rather, most social workers utilize a wide variety of orienting theories and a set of compatible and complementary perspectives, theories, and models integratively. Such a combination can be termed one's theoretical frame of reference or theoretical orientation to practice, or simply theoretical framework Sheafor, Horejsi, and Horejsi (1994) conclude:

"In order to perform effectively, the social worker uses a combination of art and science. It is recognized that a worker brings certain intangibles to the practice situation that affect process and outcome - the art encompassed in building relationships, creative thinking, courage, energy, using sound judgment, and committing to appropriate values. At the same time, the social worker must combine his or her artistic abilities with the profession's knowledge and scientific base. Without art, the knowledge base is of little value. But without the knowledge, the art is of limited effectiveness. The social worker merges his or her art and science into a practice framework" (p.45).

Students are encouraged to read chapter four (Sheafor, Horejsi, & Horejsi, 1994) which supplies enough information to suggest how practice frameworks differ and what might be required for constructing one's own theoretical orientation to practice. However, the chapter is not intended to provide a comprehensive description of any of these frameworks nor is it to provide a complete listing of all those available to the social worker.

First Level Integration of Theory with Practice in Fieldwork